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Stick particle particle playground11/2/2022 More research is needed to pinpoint these sources in order to enable the identification and implementation of cost-effective measures to reduce plastic pollution sources. However, the implications for ecological and human health and the impact on our economy are still unknown. The sources of both macroplastics and microplastics are many and diverse. Plastics end up in the ocean either as large pieces, macroplastics, microplastics (≤5 mm) or nanoplastics (≤100 nm). Pollution of the environment with plastics is recognized as a serious global threat because it can negatively affect human health, aquatic organisms, as well as the economy. Even on the beaches of remote areas such as Henderson Island, an uninhabited island in the South Pacific, large amounts of plastics have been detected. It has been estimated that between 4.8 and 12.7 million metric tonnes of plastic ended up in the ocean in the year 2010. Īs a result of the growing production of plastics, their widespread use and the mismanagement of waste, the amount of plastics in the environment is increasing rapidly. The 26.9 million tonnes rubber market sells two main classes: natural rubber (12.3 million tonnes in 2016) and synthetic rubber (14.6 million tonnes in 2016). Besides thermoplastics, rubber is also considered a class of plastic. Nowadays, the market of thermoplastics is dominated by four main classes of plastics, being polyethylene (PE 73 million tonnes in 2010), polyethylene terephthalate (PET 53 million tonnes in 2010), polypropylene (PP 50 million tonnes in 2010) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC 35 million tonnes in 2010). As a result, plastics are used increasingly in many sectors such as construction, transportation, household goods and packaging. The different varieties of polymers produced have unique characteristics when compared to traditional materials, in particular in terms of durability, production costs, weight, strength, flexibility and limited electric conductivity. The global production of thermoplastics has grown rapidly since the start of its large-scale production around the 1950s, reaching 322 million tonnes/year in 2015. This requires a global effort from all stakeholders consumers, regulators, industry and researchers alike. It is concluded here that tyre wear and tear is a stealthy source of microplastics in our environment, which can only be addressed effectively if awareness increases, knowledge gaps on quantities and effects are being closed, and creative technical solutions are being sought. The wear and tear also enters our food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks. In air, 3–7% of the particulate matter (PM 2.5) is estimated to consist of tyre wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization (WHO) at 3 million deaths in 2012. The relative contribution of tyre wear and tear to the total global amount of plastics ending up in our oceans is estimated to be 5–10%. Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The emissions from car tyres (100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tyres (2%), artificial turf (12–50%), brake wear (8%) and road markings (5%). The estimated per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/year, with a global average of 0.81 kg/year. This paper compiles the fragmented knowledge on tyre wear and tear characteristics, amounts of particles emitted, pathways in the environment, and the possible effects on humans. Wear and tear from tyres significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment.
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